This comprehensive article delves into the environmental impacts of coffee production and its consequences on local ecosystems. It begins with an overview of the history and current trends of coffee cultivation in major producing countries. Readers will then learn about the effects of coffee production on deforestation, water consumption, soil degradation, and biodiversity loss, among other environmental concerns. The article also examines sustainable coffee production practices, such as shade-grown coffee and organic farming, as well as the role of certification programs and consumer choices in promoting sustainable coffee production. Finally, it discusses policy measures, international efforts, and innovations to mitigate the environmental impacts of coffee cultivation.
Global Spread of Coffee Plantations
History of Coffee Cultivation
The history of coffee cultivation traces back to the 15th century. Coffee is believed to have originated from Ethiopia, specifically in the region of Kaffa, where the Coffea arabica species is native. The legend of Kaldi, an Ethiopian goat herder, who discovered the stimulating effects of the coffee bean after his goats ingested the plant, is a popular origin story. From Ethiopia, coffee spread to neighboring regions such as Yemen and the Arabian Peninsula, where it was first cultivated and consumed.
The Arabian Peninsula played a crucial role in the history and global spread of coffee since it was a hub for international trade. The port of Mocha in Yemen became an important center for the trade of coffee beans. During the 16th century, coffeehouses, also known as qahveh khaneh, started emerging throughout the Islamic world, in cities such as Istanbul, Damascus, and Cairo. These coffeehouses played a vital role in the cultural and social life of these cities, serving as places for social gatherings, intellectual discussions, and even political debates.
The spread of coffee cultivation to Europe began in the late 16th century. When the Ottoman Empire began to decline, the Dutch, French, and British traders took advantage and established strong routes for the cultivation and trade of coffee. The Dutch were the first Europeans to cultivate coffee beans, initially in their botanical gardens in Amsterdam and later in their colonies, such as Java and Sumatra, present-day Indonesia.
The French began cultivating coffee in the Caribbean, notably in Haiti and Martinique. Similarly, the British established coffee plantations during the 18th century throughout their colonies, most notably in Jamaica and India. With a booming demand for coffee in European markets, the expansion of coffee plantations continued across the globe, including South America.
The cultivation of coffee in South America began in the 18th century as well, with Brazil emerging as the largest coffee producer by the end of the century. The favorable climate and vast land available in Brazil contributed towards its rapid emergence as a major coffee producer. The Spanish colonies in South America, such as Colombia and Venezuela, also began cultivating coffee during this time.
Major Coffee-Producing Countries
Today, coffee cultivation occurs in more than 70 countries worldwide, with the majority of production concentrated in the equatorial regions, typically referred to as the Coffee Belt. The Coffee Belt spans across Central and South America, Africa, the Middle East, and Asia-Pacific.
Brazil holds the title of the world’s largest producer of coffee, responsible for one-third of the global output. Some of the other major coffee-producing countries include Colombia, Vietnam, Indonesia, Ethiopia, and Honduras. Collectively, these top producers account for over 70% of global coffee production.
Arabica and Robusta are the two most widely cultivated species of coffee. Arabica beans are known for their higher quality and more nuanced flavor profile, while Robusta beans are typically more bitter and contain a higher caffeine content. Arabica is predominantly cultivated in countries such as Brazil, Colombia, Ethiopia, and Mexico, while Robusta is primarily cultivated in Vietnam, Indonesia, Uganda, and Cote d’Ivoire.
Current Trends and Concerns
Over the past decade, there has been an increase in initiatives aimed at addressing sustainability and social issues within the coffee industry. Consumers are increasingly interested in ethically sourced and environmentally friendly products, which has led to an increase in fair-trade and organic coffee offerings. Additionally, coffee companies have begun investing in practices to support farmers and sustainable agriculture methods.
One major concern facing the coffee industry today is the impact of climate change. The effects of climate change have resulted in coffee-producing regions experiencing erratic rainfall patterns, increased temperatures, and an increased prevalence of diseases and pests. As coffee cultivation relies on specific temperature and altitude conditions, changes brought by climate change pose a significant risk to the future of coffee production.
Moreover, coffee cultivation has been linked to deforestation, monoculture farming practices, and overuse of water and pesticides, which have significant environmental consequences. This highlights the importance of increasing efforts towards sustainable coffee cultivation to protect both the industry and the environment.
Overall, the global spread of coffee plantations throughout history has led to coffee becoming one of the world’s most important agricultural commodities. Its rich history, cultural impact, and widespread cultivation have made it a significant industry that continues to have profound socioeconomic and environmental effects. As the coffee industry moves forward, it is essential to prioritize sustainability and address the challenges brought by climate change.
Environmental Effects of Coffee Production
Coffee is one of the most popular beverages worldwide, with millions of people consuming various types of coffee daily. Its production has a significant impact on the environment at various stages, from cultivation to harvesting and processing. This article will examine the environmental effects of coffee production, focusing on the following aspects: deforestation and land use, water consumption and pollution, soil degradation and erosion, biodiversity loss and habitat fragmentation, climate change and greenhouse gas emissions, and agrochemical use and contamination.
Deforestation and Land Use
One of the major environmental issues associated with coffee production is deforestation, as coffee is primarily grown in tropical areas where land clearing for agriculture contributes significantly to the loss of forest cover. Deforestation results in the release of vast amounts of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, and reduces the habitat available for wildlife. Additionally, the conversion of forests to farmland leads to soil degradation and erosion, as well as a reduction in the natural processes that contribute to nutrient cycling and carbon sequestration.
Some coffee production methods, such as shade-grown coffee, are more environmentally friendly than others, as they involve planting coffee under a canopy of trees, thus providing habitat for various species and reducing soil erosion. However, shade-grown coffee tends to have lower yields, prompting many farmers to opt for sun-grown coffee, which often involves clear-cutting forests to create vast monoculture plantations.
Water Consumption and Pollution
Coffee production requires a substantial amount of water for both the cultivation of the plants and the processing of the beans. The water-intensive nature of coffee production can put a strain on local water resources, particularly in areas where water scarcity is already an issue.
Furthermore, coffee production can contribute to water pollution, as the process of washing and depulping coffee beans produces large amounts of wastewater that is often released into rivers and streams without treatment. This wastewater is rich in organic matter and can lead to oxygen depletion in water bodies, impacting aquatic life and posing risks to human health.
Soil Degradation and Erosion
Soil degradation and erosion are major concerns in coffee-producing regions. The clearing of trees to make way for coffee plantations eliminates root systems that help to anchor soil in place and maintain its structure. Consequently, heavy rainfall leads to increased soil erosion and loss of fertile topsoil, reducing soil productivity and affecting crop yields.
Additionally, the frequent use of chemical fertilizers in coffee production can lead to soil degradation and a loss of soil biodiversity. Over time, this can result in soils becoming less fertile and less capable of supporting healthy plant growth.
Biodiversity Loss and Habitat Fragmentation
Coffee production has a significant impact on biodiversity, as forests and other natural habitats are cleared to make way for coffee plantations. This results in the loss of habitat for a wide range of plant and animal species, as well as a reduction in the overall biodiversity of an area.
Habitat fragmentation, another consequence of coffee production, occurs when large, continuous areas of habitat are broken up into smaller, disconnected patches. This can seriously impact wildlife populations, as it reduces the effective size of their habitat, making it more difficult for them to find food, mates, and suitable breeding grounds.
Climate Change and Greenhouse Gas Emissions
The contribution of coffee production to climate change is primarily through deforestation and the associated release of carbon dioxide, a potent greenhouse gas. Additionally, the use of fossil fuels in the cultivation, processing, and transportation of coffee beans also emits greenhouse gases, further contributing to global warming.
Some coffee production practices, such as the use of shade trees and agroforestry systems, can help to sequester carbon and mitigate the effects of climate change. However, these practices are not widely adopted, and the overall impact of coffee production on climate change remains significant.
Agrochemical Use and Contamination
The use of agrochemicals, such as pesticides, herbicides, and synthetic fertilizers, is common in coffee production to maximize yields and protect the crop from pests and diseases. However, these substances can be harmful to the environment and human health.
Agrochemicals can contaminate water resources, affecting aquatic life and posing risks to human health through exposure to contaminated water or the consumption of contaminated fish. The excessive use of chemical fertilizers can also lead to nutrient pollution, causing algal blooms and oxygen depletion in water bodies.
Moreover, the use of pesticides can have detrimental effects on non-target species, including beneficial insects such as pollinators, and can lead to the development of pest resistance, requiring the use of even more toxic chemicals. The adoption of more sustainable, integrated pest management practices and organic coffee production methods can help to reduce the environmental and health impacts of agrochemical use in coffee production.
Impacts on Local Ecosystems
Local ecosystems are essential to the biodiversity, natural resources, and overall well-being of our planet. However, human activities such as agriculture, urbanization, and industrialization have led to various adverse impacts on these ecosystems. Some of the main impacts include effects on flora and fauna, alterations to nutrient cycles, introduction of invasive species, pest and disease impacts on ecosystems, and disruptions to pollinator populations and services.
Effects on Flora and Fauna
Human activities, such as deforestation and habitat destruction, have a direct impact on the species that rely on these habitats for survival. Loss of vegetation cover can lead to a decline in plant species, which, in turn, affects the animals that depend on these plants for food or shelter. Conversion of forests and natural habitats for agriculture or urbanization can lead to habitat fragmentation and loss of biodiversity. This can result in the decline of keystone species, which are crucial to maintaining the health of a local ecosystem, and the extinction of endangered species.
Furthermore, activities such as industrial pollution and the use of agrochemicals can lead to contamination and degradation of local habitats. Soil, air, and water pollution can cause harm to plant and animal species, ultimately leading to the decline of their populations and even extinction. This, in turn, affects the delicate balance within local ecosystems, and can cause a ripple effect on other dependent species and ecosystem services they provide.
Alterations to Nutrient Cycles
Human activities can also significantly alter the nutrient cycles in local ecosystems. Agricultural practices such as monoculture, overuse of chemical fertilizers, and soil degradation can lead to declines in soil fertility, impacting the ability of the ecosystem to support vegetation growth. Additionally, the use of synthetic fertilizers can cause an imbalance in nutrient availability, leading to consequences such as eutrophication, a process where excess nutrients lead to rapid algae growth in bodies of water, leading to oxygen depletion and the death of aquatic wildlife.
Urbanization can also disrupt the natural water cycle, causing negative impacts on local ecosystems. Impermeable surfaces, such as roads and buildings, prevent rainwater from infiltrating the soil, leading to increased runoff and reduced groundwater recharge. This can cause declines in the water table, negatively impacting the availability of water for local vegetation and wildlife, as well as increasing the potential for flash floods.
Introduction of Invasive Species
Human activities often lead to the introduction of non-native species into local ecosystems, which can have devastating effects on native flora and fauna. Invasive species can outcompete native species for resources such as food, water, and space, leading to a decline in native species populations. Additionally, invasive species can introduce novel predators, pathogens, or competitors, causing harm to native species and potentially leading to local extinctions.
Invasive species can also have negative impacts on ecosystem services, such as water filtration or pollination, by disrupting the natural balance and relationships within the local ecosystem. Prevention, control, and eradication of invasive species are critical to conserving local ecosystems and maintaining biodiversity.
Pest and Disease Impacts on Ecosystems
Human activities can contribute to the spread of pests and diseases within local ecosystems, with potentially devastating impacts on plant and animal populations. The movement of people, animals, and agricultural products can introduce new pests and pathogens to local ecosystems, overwhelming native species’ defenses and leading to population declines or extinctions. For example, human activities have been linked to the spread of deadly white-nose syndrome in North American bat populations, as well as the rapid decline of amphibian populations due to chytrid fungi.
Additionally, changes in land use and climate can contribute to increased pest and disease prevalence. Habitat loss, reduced biodiversity, and altered conditions can make local ecosystems more susceptible to pests and diseases, leading to further declines in plant and animal populations and their associated ecosystem services.
Disruptions to Pollinator Populations and Services
Pollinators, such as bees, birds, and bats, play a crucial role in the reproduction of many plant species and are essential to the functioning of local ecosystems. Human activities such as pesticide use, habitat loss, and climate change can negatively impact pollinator populations, leading to declines in pollination services provided to plants. This, in turn, can result in reduced plant reproduction and potentially declining plant populations, affecting the entire local ecosystem and the services it provides, such as food and habitat for other species.
Conserving and promoting habitat for pollinators, as well as adopting more sustainable agricultural practices, can help mitigate the negative impacts of human activities on local ecosystems and ensure the continued provision of essential ecosystem services.
Sustainable Coffee Production Practices
Sustainable coffee production includes techniques and practices that help protect the environment and improve the livelihoods of coffee farmers. These practices enhance soil fertility, protect biodiversity, reduce water usage, and limit the use of harmful chemicals. The following sections provide a comprehensive overview of various sustainable coffee production practices.
Shade-Grown Coffee
Shade-grown coffee is a traditional coffee production method where the coffee plants are grown under the canopy of trees. This practice is more beneficial to the environment compared to sun-grown coffee, which involves large-scale deforestation and habitat destruction.
Shade-grown coffee promotes biodiversity by providing a habitat for various bird and insect species. Many species of birds, especially migratory ones, find shelter in these coffee farms, which also helps with pest control. The presence of different types of trees allows coffee farmers to diversify their income by harvesting fruits, nuts, and timber in addition to coffee beans.
Furthermore, shade-grown coffee cultivation helps maintain soil fertility, thus reducing the dependency of coffee farmers on chemical fertilizers. The leaf litter from the canopy trees serves as a natural mulch, which protects the soil from erosion, maintains moisture levels, and enriches it with nutrients. This method also helps in mitigating the adverse effects of climate change by trapping more carbon dioxide through the trees, compared to sun-grown coffee farms.
Organic Farming
Organic coffee production is another sustainable practice that eliminates the usage of synthetic chemicals. Instead, it employs natural pest control methods, such as biological pest control, as well as the use of organic compost and animal manure for soil enrichment.
Organic coffee farming not only benefits the environment by reducing the presence of harmful chemicals but also improves the farmers’ health, as they have less exposure to synthetic pesticides and fertilizers. Moreover, many consumers prefer organic coffee due to its perceived health benefits and positive environmental impact.
Agroforestry Systems
Agroforestry systems involve intercropping coffee plants with other crops, such as fruits, nuts, or timber trees. This diversification leads to increased income for farmers, reduced risk from crop failures, and better nutrient cycling within the ecosystem.
Intercropping coffee plants can also contribute to pest control as some companion plants, like legumes, can deter pests or attract beneficial insects. Additionally, the inclusion of nitrogen-fixing plants can naturally enrich soil fertility.
Water Conservation and Management
Water is a critical resource in coffee production, and sustainable coffee farming practices should prioritize water conservation and management. Proper irrigation techniques, such as drip irrigation, can help in reducing water wastage, ensuring that the water reaches the roots of the plants efficiently.
Furthermore, wastewater treatment and recycling practices prevent water pollution, especially from coffee washing stations. By using settling tanks to remove debris and letting the wastewater undergo natural processes (such as oxidation), farmers can reuse water for irrigation or safely release it into the environment.
Integrated Pest Management
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a holistic approach to controlling pests and diseases in coffee production. IPM focuses on preventing pest problems using cultural practices, biological control, and selective use of pesticides, instead of solely relying on chemical controls.
Some examples of IPM practices include weed management, maintaining the right shade levels, and identifying and encouraging the growth of natural predators. When chemical control is necessary, IPM emphasizes using the least toxic and most environmentally friendly options available.
Recycling and Waste Reduction
Sustainable coffee production practices also involve reducing waste and recycling by-products. Coffee pulp, for example, can be composted and used as organic fertilizer. Coffee husks, another by-product of coffee processing, can be used as fuel for drying ovens, reducing the need for firewood and deforestation.
In conclusion, adopting sustainable coffee production practices is essential for the long-term survival of coffee farming communities and for the protection of our planet’s ecosystems. By implementing these practices, we can enjoy our daily cup of coffee while minimizing its negative impact on the environment.
Role of Certification Programs and Consumer Choices
Certification programs play a pivotal role in empowering consumers to make informed choices about the products they purchase. These programs help communicate the environmental, social, and economic standards that manufacturers and producers adhere to, thereby fostering transparency and driving sustainable practices. In the coffee industry, various certification programs provide critical information about the sourcing and production methods employed by coffee companies. This article discusses the role of these certification schemes in consumer preferences and the overall market for sustainably produced coffee.
Fair Trade Certification
The Fair Trade certification program is designed to promote better trading conditions for farmers and workers in developing countries. Fair Trade coffee aims at creating fair wages, safe working conditions, and environmental sustainability while giving growers a voice in decision-making processes.
This certification ensures that farmers receive a minimum price for their coffee, providing them with financial security and allowing them to invest in sustainable farming practices that minimize environmental impact. It also supports community development projects, such as building schools and healthcare facilities.
As consumers become more conscious of the implications of their purchasing decisions, demand for Fair Trade coffee has grown significantly, creating a market incentive for producers to adopt the necessary ethical and sustainable standards required for certification. In turn, this creates a positive cycle of sustainable production, improved working conditions, and social development in coffee-producing communities.
Rainforest Alliance Certification
The Rainforest Alliance certification program focuses on conserving biodiversity and promoting sustainable livelihoods for farmers and workers. Coffee bearing the Rainforest Alliance seal must meet specific environmental, social, and economic criteria as per the Sustainable Agricultural Standard.
The certification ensures that coffee is produced using methods that protect wildlife, ecosystems, and water sources while minimizing deforestation and pesticide use. It also emphasizes workers’ rights, fair wages, and safe working conditions.
Like the Fair Trade certification, the Rainforest Alliance certification creates a market demand for greener coffee production practices, pushing producers to seek certification and adopt environmentally-friendly methods to meet consumer demands for a more sustainable cup of coffee.
Organic Certification
Organic coffee certification addresses the environmental aspects of coffee production, emphasizing the elimination of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in coffee farming. Certified organic coffee promotes biodiversity, soil health, and ecosystem sustainability.
Consumer demand for organic coffee has grown as awareness of the potential health benefits and environmental impact of organic farming practices increase. This certification, like the others, contributes to the growth of sustainable coffee production practices by creating a market for eco-friendly coffee.
Bird-Friendly Certification
The Bird-Friendly coffee certification, developed by the Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center, focuses on maintaining and preserving bird habitat within coffee farms. This certification places stringent requirements on shade-grown coffee production, which helps maintain biodiversity and provides critical habitat for migratory birds.
By promoting shade-grown coffee, the Bird-Friendly certification encourages producers to conserve forests and habitats, contributing to overall global biodiversity goals. Consumers who choose Bird-Friendly coffee demonstrate their commitment to protecting wildlife and supporting producers who maintain these high ecological standards in their operations.
Consumer Awareness and Demand for Sustainable Coffee
As awareness of environmental, social, and economic issues related to coffee production grows, demand for certified sustainable coffee continues to rise. Certification programs serve as important tools for communicating these issues and enabling consumers to make informed choices that ultimately drive market demand for sustainably-produced coffee.
By choosing certified coffees, consumers play a crucial role in advocating for sustainable practices in the coffee industry. These purchasing decisions support farmers, workers, and ecosystems, generating a positive feedback loop that incentivizes more producers to adopt sustainable practices and promote a healthier, greener, and more equitable coffee supply chain.
Policy Measures and International Efforts to Address Environmental Impacts
Environmental degradation and climate change have posed significant challenges to the global community. Governments, international organizations, and the private sector have recognized the need for policies and measures to mitigate these impacts. This section explores various policy measures and international efforts to address environmental impacts, including domestic policies, international cooperation, public-private partnerships, and research and technological innovations.
Domestic Policies and Regulations
Governments across the world implement domestic policies and regulations to manage and reduce the environmental impacts of various activities. Some common policy measures include:
- Emission standards: Many countries have regulations for controlling the emission of pollutants from major industries, such as power plants, manufacturing facilities, and vehicles. These standards limit the amount of pollutants that can be released and promote cleaner technologies.
- Environmental impact assessments: Before government or private entities initiate development projects, they undergo environmental impact assessments to identify potential environmental risks and take measures to minimize them.
- Renewable energy promotion: Governments often provide incentives, such as tax breaks or subsidies, to encourage the development and use of renewable energy resources. This helps reduce reliance on fossil fuels and fosters a shift towards cleaner and sustainable energy sources.
- Land use policies: Land use planning and zoning regulations influence the way land is used to accommodate different needs, such as agriculture, urban development, and conservation. Governments can create protected areas, restrict deforestation, and implement reforestation programs to maintain biodiversity and reduce environmental impacts.
- Waste management regulations: Governments establish regulations for waste disposal, recycling, and treatment to minimize pollution and promote resource conservation.
International Cooperation and Agreements
Addressing environmental issues often requires international cooperation to ensure progress on a global scale. Numerous international agreements have been devised to tackle problems such as climate change, biodiversity loss, and pollution. Some of these intergovernmental agreements include:
- United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): This treaty, adopted in 1992, aims to stabilize greenhouse gas (GHG) in the atmosphere, thereby reducing global warming. The Paris Agreement, under the UNFCCC, sets specific emission reduction targets for participating countries.
- Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): The CBD, established in 1992, aims to promote the conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of natural resources, and fair sharing of benefits derived from genetic resources.
- Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer: This 1987 agreement seeks to protect the ozone layer by phasing out substances that deplete it, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
Public-Private Partnerships
Public-private partnerships (PPPs) are crucial in tackling environmental challenges as they bring together the resources, expertise, and innovation of both the public and private sectors. These partnerships may involve collaborations between governments, international organizations, businesses, and non-profit organizations to implement environmental projects, develop eco-friendly technologies, and promote sustainable business practices.
Examples of PPPs include clean energy projects, such as large-scale wind or solar farms, developed through joint investments from governments and private companies. Similarly, partnerships between governments and technology companies can foster research and development in areas such as waste management, water conservation, and pollution control.
Research and Technological Innovations
Research and technological innovations play a critical role in addressing environmental concerns. Governments, academic institutions, and the private sector are investing in research in areas including renewable energy, carbon capture and storage, and sustainable agriculture. Technological innovations, on the other hand, enable businesses to reduce their environmental footprint by adopting more efficient processes, manufacturing techniques, or recycling methods.
Among the various innovations are electric vehicles (EVs), which help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and dependence on fossil fuels. Similarly, advancements in solar and wind energy technologies have made them more affordable and accessible, thereby promoting renewable energy adoption. Other examples include innovative waste management technologies, such as waste-to-energy conversion, and precision agriculture methods that improve resource efficiency and reduce environmental impacts.
In summary, multiple policy measures and international efforts help address environmental challenges on a global scale. These involve domestic policies and regulations, international cooperation and agreements, public-private partnerships, and research and technological innovations. Combining these approaches can significantly contribute to mitigating environmental impacts and promoting a more sustainable future.
FAQs on The Impact of Coffee Plantations on the Environment and Local Ecosystems
What environmental implications do coffee plantations have on local ecosystems?
Coffee plantations contribute to deforestation, habitat loss for wildlife, and depletion of soil nutrients. Additionally, extensive monoculture can disrupt the symbiosis between native species and contribute to loss of biodiversity (Perfecto et al, 2007).
How does coffee cultivation contribute to deforestation?
To establish coffee plantations, especially sun-grown coffee, large areas of land are often cleared of native vegetation including trees, leading to deforestation. This process negatively impacts carbon storage, water regulation, and biodiversity (Jha et al, 2014).
How does the use of agrochemicals in coffee production affect the environment?
Agrochemicals, such as fertilizers and pesticides, often contaminate local water resources and disrupt native fauna, including pollinators and predator-prey relationships. This contamination can have both short- and long-term negative effects on ecosystems and human health (Vaast & Somarriba Chavez, 2014).
What is the importance of shade-grown coffee in terms of environmental sustainability?
Shade-grown coffee promotes biodiversity, as its cultivation mimics a natural forest ecosystem. This method supports wildlife habitats, improves soil quality, and reduces the need for chemical inputs, making it a more sustainable option for coffee production (Perfecto & Vandermeer, 2008).
Can coffee plantations help mitigate climate change?
When managed sustainably, coffee plantations can assist in carbon sequestration, reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Shade-grown coffee plantations, in particular, store higher amounts of carbon in vegetation and soil, thus mitigating climate change (Noponen et al, 2018).
How do coffee-growing practices impact local communities and their environment?
In many coffee-growing regions, deforestation and water pollution from agrochemicals can disrupt local ecosystems essential to the livelihoods of communities. However, sustainable practices like shade-grown coffee and agroforestry can promote biodiversity and protect resources vital for local communities (Babin et al, 2017).
